Class 10 Political Science/ Civics Chapter 4- Political Parties

 

Class 10 Political Science/ Civics

Chapter 4- Political Parties

Notes

 

 

1.    The Importance of Political Parties:

Political parties are like the face of democracy. For common people, democracy means picking their favorite party at the ballot box. A political party is a group of people who join to run in elections and gain control in government. They agree on some ideas and also have opinions on different topics that they think are good for society.

They try to convince people why their ideas are better than others'. They put these ideas into action by getting support from people, which helps them win elections. Political parties represent different groups in society and encourage people to support them.

A political party has three main parts: leaders, active members, and followers.

2.    What Political Parties Do:

Besides winning elections and having power, political parties do other important things:

• They compete in elections and let candidates use their party name and symbol.
• They present different programs and ideas, and voters pick the ones they like. Since there are lots of people with lots of ideas, parties group similar ideas together to make it easier for voters.
• Parties help make laws for the country since most lawmakers belong to a party.
• When they win enough votes, parties form and run the government.
• If they don't win enough votes, parties become the opposition. They watch the government closely and criticize it when they think it's doing something wrong.
• Parties also influence what people think about. They talk about issues and sometimes start movements with the help of their members and supporters.
• Parties give people access to government services and benefits to get their support for future elections.

3. Why We Need Political Parties:

Understanding why we need political parties in a democracy is important, especially when they're not around:

• Without political parties, candidates with different ideas run for elections on their own. This makes it hard to form a government because no one agrees on how to run the country.
• In places where political parties are absent, people support different groups, and there's no one to guide public opinion. Political parties help shape public opinion by talking about important issues.
• Because societies are complicated, we need political parties to gather different ideas and present them effectively to the government.
• Political parties are linked to representative democracy, which is important in big societies where regular people can't be part of every decision.

4. Different Political Party Systems:

Different countries have different ways of organizing their political parties:

• One-Party System: Only one party runs elections and the government. This doesn't give people a choice and isn't good for democracy, like in China and North Korea.
• Two-Party System: Most of the power is between two big parties, even though other small parties exist. This happens in the United States and the United Kingdom.
• Multi-Party System: More than two parties compete in elections, giving people many choices. India is an example of this.

5. Types of Political Parties in India: India has many political parties, but they're split into two main types: national and state parties:

• National Parties: These parties are all over the country and have a say in national and state-level politics. Examples include the Aam Aadmi Party, Bahujan Samaj Party, Bharatiya Janata Party, Communist Party of India (Marxist), Indian National Congress, and National People's Party.
• State Parties: These parties only work in one or two states and focus on local issues. They play an important role in forming alliances with national parties. Examples include the Biju Janata Dal, Mizo National Front, Sikkim Democratic Front, and Telangana Rashtra Samithi.

6. Making Political Parties Better:

Political parties have some problems, but we can fix them to make democracy stronger:

• More Democracy in Parties: Letting more people in the party have a say in decisions, not just the leaders.
• No More Family Politics: Leaders should be chosen based on their skills, not because they're related to someone important.
• Less Money and Power: We need rules to stop parties from using money and force to win elections.
• More Choices: Parties should have different ideas so people can pick what they believe in.

7. How to reform Parties Better: We can improve political parties in different ways:

• Change the Law: Make rules that stop politicians from switching parties and force them to tell people about their money and any crimes they've committed.
• Courts' Help: Judges can make politicians follow the rules and be honest about their money and actions.
• People Power: By speaking up and showing politicians what they want, regular people can make parties change.
• Get Involved: If people who want change join politics, they can make things better. More people taking part means better democracy.

In conclusion, political parties are vital for democracy, but they need to change to work better for everyone. We can make them better by changing the law, courts helping out, people speaking up, and more folks getting involved in politics.

8. National Parties

1. Aam Aadmi Party (AAP):
1. Founded in 2012 by Arvind Kejriwal after a split from the anti-corruption movement led by Anna Hazare in 2011.
2. Promotes the ideologies of nationalism, populism, secularism, and socialism.
3. Holds significant political presence in Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, and other regions.
4. Currently governs in Delhi and Punjab, with Arvind Kejriwal serving as its national convener.
2. Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP):
1. Established in 1984 by Kanshi Ram, aiming to represent and advocate for Bahujans, which includes scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, other backward classes, and minority religions.
2. Ideologically aligned with the principles of social equality, social justice, and self-respect as propagated by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Jyotiba Phule, Gautam Buddha, and other prominent social reformers.
3. Strong base in Uttar Pradesh, with a presence in Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Delhi, and Punjab.
4. Led by Mayawati, the party's national president, and won 10 seats in the 2019 Lok Sabha elections.
3. Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP):
1. Formed in 1980 by reviving the erstwhile Bharatiya Jana Sangh.
2. Promotes the concept of cultural nationalism (Hindutva) and seeks to build a strong, modern India rooted in ancient cultural values.
3. Currently holds power at the central government under the leadership of Prime Minister Narendra Modi and governs several states across India.
4. A right-wing party and the leading member of the National Democratic Alliance (NDA), with J.P. Nadda serving as its national president.
4. Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI-M):
1. Emerged in 1964 after a split from the Communist Party of India (CPI).
2. Advocates for Marxism-Leninism, socialism, democracy, and secularism, while opposing imperialism and communalism.
3. Strong support base in states like West Bengal, Kerala, and Tripura, particularly among factory workers and agricultural laborers.
4. Critical of capitalism and advocates for policies to protect the interests of the working class.
5. Indian National Congress (INC):
1. One of the oldest political parties in India, founded in 1885.
2. Played a crucial role in India's struggle for independence and has since been a prominent player in national and state-level politics.
3. Led by leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira Gandhi, and Rajiv Gandhi, the party has governed India for most of its post-independence history.
4. Currently, the principal opposition party at the national level and leads the United Progressive Alliance (UPA).
6. National People’s Party (NPP):
1. Formed in 2012 by P.A. Sangma after a split from the Nationalist Congress Party (NCP).
2. Holds a significant presence in the northeastern state of Meghalaya, with additional representation in Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, and Manipur.
3. Advocates for regionalism and ethnocentrism, emphasizing the role of education in empowering marginalized sections of society.
4. Recognized as the first party from the northeast to achieve national party status.

9. Important Regional parties (statewise)

Andhra Pradesh:

1. Telugu Desam Party (TDP)
2. Yuvajana Sramika Rythu Congress Party (YSRCP)
3. Telangana Rashtra Samithi (TRS)

Assam:               

1. Asom Gana Parishad (AGP)
2. Bodoland People's Front (BPF)
3. All India United Democratic Front (AIUDF)

Bihar:

1. Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD)
2. Janata Dal (United) [JD(U)]
3. Lok Janshakti Party (LJP)

Goa:

1. Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party (MGP)
2. Goa Forward Party (GFP)

Gujarat:

1. Bharatiya Tribal Party (BTP)
2. Gujarat Parivartan Party (GPP)

Haryana:

1. Indian National Lok Dal (INLD)
2. Jannayak Janta Party (JJP)

Jharkhand:

1. Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (JMM)
2. Jharkhand Vikas Morcha (Prajatantrik) [JVM(P)]

Karnataka:

1. Janata Dal (Secular) [JD(S)]
2. Kannada Nadu Party (KNP)
3. Karnataka Pragnyavantha Janatha Party (KPJP)

Kerala:

1. Communist Party of India (Marxist) [CPI-M]
2. Communist Party of India (CPI)
3. Indian Union Muslim League (IUML)

Madhya Pradesh:

1. Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP)
2. Gondwana Gantantra Party (GGP)
3. Samajwadi Party (SP)

Maharashtra:

1. Shiv Sena
2. Maharashtra Navnirman Sena (MNS)
3. Nationalist Congress Party (NCP)

Odisha:

1. Biju Janata Dal (BJD)
2. Samata Kranti Dal (SKD)
3. Kalinga Sena

Punjab:

1. Shiromani Akali Dal (SAD)
2. Aam Aadmi Party (AAP)
3. Punjab Ekta Party (PEP)

Tamil Nadu:

1. All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK)
2. Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK)
3. Pattali Makkal Katchi (PMK)

Telangana:

1. Telangana Jana Samithi (TJS)
2. Telangana Rastra Samithi (TRS)
3. Telugu Desam Party (TDP)

Uttar Pradesh:

1. Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP)
2. Samajwadi Party (SP)
3. Rashtriya Lok Dal (RLD)

West Bengal:

1. All India Trinamool Congress (AITC)
2. Communist Party of India (Marxist) [CPI-M]
3. All India Forward Bloc (AIFB)

Class 10 Political Science/ Civics Chapter 3- Gender, Religious and Caste

 

Class 10 Political Science/ Civics

Chapter 3- Gender, Religious and Caste

Notes

 

1. Gender Division:

• Many people think that men and women naturally have different roles in society, but it's actually based on what society expects, not biology.
• In many places, women usually do most of the housework, whether they're part of a family or working outside the home. This is called the sexual division of labor.
• The sexual division of labor has kept women from doing certain jobs for a long time, mainly keeping them at home. But things have changed with movements like Women's Suffrage.
• Patriarchy is when society sees men as more important than women and gives them more power in politics and money.

2. Women experience discrimination and oppression in various ways:

a. Compared to men, women have a lower literacy rate (54% vs. 76%). Even though girls perform as well as, if not better than, boys in school, they are more likely to drop out, and fewer are allowed to pursue higher education.

b. The work done by women is often undervalued, resulting in fewer high-paying job opportunities for them.

c. Women typically receive lower pay than men for doing the same job.

d. Despite the Equal Remuneration Act of 1976, which aims to prevent such practices, this inequality persists across different industries.

e. Female fetuses are selectively aborted in some regions, leading to imbalanced child sex ratios like India's 914 girls for every 1000 boys.

f. Girls and women face various forms of violence and harassment, both within and outside of their homes.

3. Feminist: A feminist is an individual, regardless of gender, who advocates for equal rights and opportunities for both men and women.

Feminist Movement: These movements represent radical efforts by women dedicated to achieving gender equality in personal, family, and public spheres. They have mobilized and campaigned to expand opportunities for women in politics, law, education, and employment.

Women's engagement in public life is notably high in certain regions globally, such as Scandinavian countries like Sweden, Norway, and Finland.

4. Women’s Political Representation:

The participation of women in politics has historically lagged behind that of men worldwide. Enhancing women's political empowerment and placing them in decision-making and legislative roles can enhance their well-being. When women hold positions of authority, they are more likely to address women's needs and find solutions to their challenges.

• In India, women's representation in politics falls below the global average, with only about 10% of legislators being women compared to the global average of 19%.
• Women are underrepresented in state legislatures in India, comprising only about 5% of the total seats.
• The Panchayati Raj Act mandates that one-third of all seats in local bodies be reserved for women candidates, leading to increased female participation in municipalities and panchayats.
• However, attempts to implement similar legislation in the Lok Sabha and various state legislatures have been unsuccessful due to a lack of consensus among political parties, resulting in the failure to pass such laws.

5. Religion:

Religious affiliations often intersect with politics, particularly in India where diverse religious communities coexist. It's essential for individuals to be able to voice their political needs, interests, and demands as members of their respective religious communities.

6. Family Law:

Family laws encompass regulations governing various familial matters like marriage, divorce, inheritance, and adoption. These laws vary depending on the religious affiliation of individuals in our country.

7. Communalism:

Communal politics involves leveraging religion in political discourse, pitting the demands of one religious group against another, often with the backing of state authority to establish dominance. This occurs:

• When one religion is portrayed as superior to others.
• When conflicting demands arise between different religious groups.
• When state power is wielded to favor one religious community over others.

8. In the political arena, communalism can manifest in various ways:

• Displaying biases and prejudices towards certain religious groups, along with assertions of religious superiority.
• A communal mindset often fuels aspirations for political dominance within one's religious community.
• Religious symbols, leaders, emotional appeals, and fear tactics are employed to mobilize followers of a particular religion for political purposes.
• In extreme cases, communalism can lead to violent conflicts, riots, and massacres, as witnessed during the partition of India and Pakistan, marking some of the deadliest communal unrest in history.

 

9. Secular State: India stands as a democratic and secular nation, characterized by several significant features:

·        The Indian state remains impartial regarding religion, devoid of any official religious affiliation.

·        Under the Constitution, individuals and groups enjoy the freedom to profess, practice, and propagate any religion of their choice, or to adhere to none at all.

·        Discrimination based on religion is expressly prohibited by the Constitution.

·        The Constitution empowers the government to intervene in religious affairs to ensure religious equality, with practices like untouchability being explicitly prohibited.

10. Caste and Politics:

Caste is a system of social classification based on occupation, often characterized by its hereditary nature, religious underpinnings, and the division of people into hierarchical status groups. This hierarchy often limits interaction between different caste groups, both upward and downward. Both politics and caste exhibit aspects that are beneficial and detrimental.

11. Caste Inequalities:

In many societies, occupations are transmitted from one generation to the next, a practice that is elevated to its extreme in the caste system. Traditionally, members of the same caste were expected to form a cohesive social unit, sharing similar occupations, marrying within the caste, and refraining from inter-caste dining.

The traditional notions of caste hierarchy are eroding due to factors such as economic advancement, widespread urbanization, improved literacy and education, occupational mobility, and the diminishing influence of landholding status in communities. The Indian Constitution has outlawed caste-based discrimination and laid the foundation for policies aimed at rectifying inequalities within the system.

12. Caste in Politics:

 Caste manifests itself in various forms within politics:

• Political parties and governments often strive to ensure representation from diverse castes and tribes among their candidates.
• Caste sentiments are frequently invoked by politicians to secure electoral victories.
• Caste-based issues are highlighted during elections to garner political support, given the significant power wielded by voters under the "one man, one vote" principle.
• Lower caste individuals have become increasingly cognizant of their voting rights and influence due to the efforts of political parties.

13. Politics in Caste: Politics influences and is influenced by the caste system, leading to various manifestations:

• Caste groups seek to expand their influence by assimilating neighboring castes or sub-castes.
• Negotiations and interactions occur between different caste groups or communities.
• New caste identities, such as "backward" and "forward" castes, have emerged in the political landscape.
• caste plays a multifaceted role in politics, sometimes leading to tensions, conflicts, and even violence in certain situations.

Class 10 Political Science/ Civics Chapter 2- Federalism Notes

 

Class 10 Political Science/ Civics

Chapter 2- Federalism

Notes

1. Introduction

In the preceding chapter, you explored how the distribution of authority among various tiers of government is a significant aspect of power sharing in contemporary democracies. In this chapter, we delve into the concept and application of federalism within the context of India. As you progress, you will gain insights into the theory and practical implementation of federalism in India. Additionally, towards the conclusion of this chapter, we will examine the emergence of local government as a novel and third tier of federalism in the Indian political landscape.

2. Federalism

Federalism refers to a governmental structure where authority is divided between a central governing body and multiple constituent units within the nation. Within a federation, there exist two distinct levels of government, each exercising its powers autonomously from the other.

1. The first level of government encompasses the national administration, responsible for managing subjects of common national interest across the entire country.
2. The second level consists of regional or state governments, entrusted with the daily administration and governance of their respective states or provinces.

3. Key Characteristics of Federalism

Federalism encompasses several defining features:

a)    Multiple Tiers of Government: A federal system involves two or more levels (or tiers) of government operating within the same country.

b)    Distinct Jurisdictions: Each tier of government governs the same citizens, yet possesses its own jurisdiction over specific matters related to legislation, taxation, and administration.

c)    Constitutional Guarantees: The existence and authority of each tier of government are constitutionally enshrined, providing a legal framework for their functions.

d)    Consent for Constitutional Amendments: Fundamental provisions of the Constitution cannot be unilaterally altered by one level of government. Amendments require the consent of both tiers of government.

e)    Judicial Oversight: Courts hold the authority to interpret the Constitution and delineate the powers of different levels of government, ensuring adherence to constitutional principles.

f)     Financial Autonomy: Revenue sources for each level of government are clearly defined to uphold financial independence and autonomy.

g)    Dual Objectives: Federalism aims to achieve two primary goals: i) Safeguarding and fostering national unity, and ii) Accommodating and respecting regional diversity within the country.

4. Difference Between Unitary System and Federal System

In a unitary system, governance is centralized, with only one level of government existing, and all subordinate units are under the authority of the Central Government. This means that the Central Government holds supreme authority and can issue directives to provincial or local governments as it sees fit. Additionally, administrative divisions within the unitary system exercise powers that are delegated by the central government, and these powers can be broadened or limited by the central authority based on its discretion.

On the other hand, in a federal system, there are multiple levels, or tiers, of government. These tiers coexist alongside each other, with neither being subordinate to the other. Unlike in a unitary system, the Central Government in a federal system does not possess the authority to mandate actions to state governments. Instead, state governments hold inherent powers that are independent of the central authority and for which they are not answerable to the central government. This decentralized structure ensures that powers are shared between the different levels of government, with each level possessing its own distinct sphere of authority and autonomy.

5. Different Approaches to Establishing

Federations The formation of federations relies on two fundamental aspects: mutual trust among government entities at various levels and a shared commitment to coexist. There are two primary routes through which federations have historically emerged:

a)    Voluntary Association: This route involves independent states voluntarily joining together to form a larger political entity. Known as a "coming together" federation, this model is exemplified by nations like the United States, Switzerland, and Australia.

b)    Division of Powers: In this approach, a large country opts to distribute its authority between constituent states and a central national government. Termed a "holding together" federation, this method is practiced in countries like India, Spain, and Belgium.

6. What Defines India as a Federal Nation?

 India's federal character is underpinned by the provisions of its Constitution, which embody key features of federalism. The Indian Constitution delineates a three-fold distribution of legislative powers between the Union Government and State Governments, categorized into three lists:

a)    Union List: Encompasses subjects of national significance such as defence, foreign affairs, banking, and currency, over which only the Union Government possesses legislative authority.

b)    State List: Includes matters of state and local importance such as police, trade, agriculture, and irrigation, over which only State Governments hold legislative jurisdiction.

c)    Concurrent List: Consists of subjects of mutual interest to both Union and State Governments, such as education, forests, and marriage. Both levels of government can legislate on items within this list, with Union laws prevailing in case of conflicts.

7. Practicing Federalism in India

The efficacy of federalism in India is underscored by its democratic ethos, manifested in various ways:

a)    Linguistic States: The creation of linguistic States represents a significant aspect of democratic politics in India. Over the years, numerous old States have been reconfigured or replaced by new ones based on linguistic considerations, reflecting the diverse linguistic landscape of the nation.

b)    Language Policy: India's language policy acknowledges Hindi as the official language alongside 21 other languages recognized as Scheduled Languages by the Constitution. Moreover, each State has its own official language for government proceedings.

c)    Centre-State Relations: Strengthening Centre-State relations has been instrumental in bolstering federalism in India. Coalition governments formed at the Centre, involving major national parties and regional parties, exemplify a culture of power sharing and respect for State Governments' autonomy when no single party secures a clear majority in the Lok Sabha.

8. Decentralisation in India

Decentralisation refers to the transfer of power from central and state governments to local government bodies. This concept is rooted in the belief that many problems and issues are best addressed at the local level, where community members can directly participate in decision-making processes.

A significant stride towards decentralisation occurred in 1992 when the Constitution was amended to empower the third tier of democracy. The key features of this three-tiered democratic structure include:

a)    Mandated Local Elections: Regular elections for local government bodies are constitutionally mandated, ensuring democratic representation at the grassroots level.

b)    Reserved Seats: Seats in elected bodies and executive positions within these institutions are reserved for marginalized communities such as Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Other Backward Classes, and women.

c)    Women's Representation: At least one-third of all positions are reserved for women, promoting gender equality and women's participation in governance.

d)    State Election Commissions: Each state has established a State Election Commission responsible for conducting elections for panchayats and municipalities, ensuring fair and transparent electoral processes.

e)    Power and Revenue Sharing: State governments are obligated to share certain powers and revenue with local government bodies, although the specifics of this sharing arrangement vary from state to state.

9. Panchayati Raj System

The rural local government system, known as Panchayati Raj, operates at the grassroots level in India. Each village, or a cluster of villages in some states, is represented by a gram panchayat comprising ward members, or "panches," and a president, or sarpanch, who are directly elected by the adult population.

The Gram Panchayat functions under the oversight of the Gram Sabha, comprising all eligible voters in the village. The Gram Sabha convenes at least twice or thrice a year to approve the gram panchayat's annual budget and review its performance.

Multiple Gram Panchayats are grouped together to form a Panchayat Samiti, Block, or Mandal, with representatives elected by members of the respective Gram Panchayats. These Panchayat Samitis collectively constitute the Zilla Parishad at the district level, with members including Lok Sabha representatives, MLAs, and officials from other district-level bodies.

10.Local Governments in Urban Areas

Just as Gram Panchayats cater to rural regions, urban areas are served by Municipalities, with larger cities organized into Municipal Corporations. Both Municipalities and Municipal Corporations are governed by elected bodies comprising representatives chosen by the people. The Municipal Chairperson serves as the political head of the Municipality, while in a Municipal Corporation, this role is fulfilled by the Mayor.

This novel system of local governance represents one of the most extensive experiments in democracy worldwide. Granting constitutional status to local government entities has significantly enhanced the democratic fabric of our nation, fostering greater representation and amplifying the voices of women within our democratic framework.

Class 10 Political Science/ Civics Chapter 1- Power Sharing Notes

 Class 10 Political Science/ Civics

Chapter 1- Power Sharing

Notes

 

1. Introduction

In a democratic system, no individual branch of government possesses absolute authority.

 A democratic framework necessitates a balanced distribution of power among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

This chapter elaborates on the concept of power distribution.

Initially, two narratives from Sri Lanka and Belgium are introduced. These narratives illustrate how democracies address requests for power distribution.

 Through these narratives, broader conclusions are drawn regarding the imperative nature of democratic power distribution.

2. Story of Belgium

Belgium is a small country in Europe with over 10 million people. It's surrounded by France, Germany, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. What's cool about Belgium is its mix of cultures and traditions.

In Belgium, most people speak Dutch, about 59%. After that, French is the next common language. In the capital city, Brussels, 80% of folks speak French, while 20% speak Dutch.

But even though Belgium seems peaceful, there are tensions between the Dutch and French speakers. These differences sometimes cause problems. Still, Belgium has a smart and educated population, showing strength despite its challenges.

3. Story of Sri Lanka

·         Sri Lanka, an island country with a population exceeding 20 million, is marked by its linguistic and religious diversity.

·         The majority of its inhabitants communicate in Sinhala, while the rest favor Tamil. Within the Tamil-speaking community, two distinct groups exist: Sri Lankan Tamils and Indian Tamils.

·         The religious landscape further underscores this diversity, with most Sinhala speakers identifying as Buddhists, while Tamil speakers adhere to Hinduism or Islam. Christianity represents a minority faith, embraced by less than 7% of Sri Lanka's populace.

·         In Sri Lanka, the concept of majoritarianism unfolded in a series of events.

·         In 1956, an Act declared Sinhala as the exclusive language of the nation, sidelining Tamil speakers. Subsequent government policies favored Sinhala residents in various sectors, including government employment and university admissions. This sudden preference for the Sinhala community left Tamil speakers feeling marginalized.

·         By the 1980s, political groups advocating for an independent Tamil State emerged in response to this marginalization. The growing divide between the Sinhala and Tamil communities escalated into a significant conflict, ultimately erupting into a devastating civil war.

4. How Belgium did Accommodation?

In an effort to reconcile the divisions between communities, the Belgian government implemented several legislative measures.

Between 1970 and 1993, they amended the constitution four times, instituting a novel governmental framework.

Key components of this new model included ensuring parity between Dutch and French-speaking leaders in government, granting state governments autonomy to make decisions independent of the central government, establishing a separate government for Brussels with equal representation from both communities, and creating community governments to honor the distinct identities of each community.

5. What makes Power Sharing Desirable?

·         Power sharing is not just a mechanism for reducing conflicts and wars among different communities; it also fosters inclusivity and ensures that diverse voices are heard in the decision-making process. By distributing power among various groups, whether based on ethnicity, language, religion, or other factors, power sharing acknowledges the pluralistic nature of societies and promotes a sense of belonging among all citizens.

·         In a power-sharing system, democratic principles are upheld, allowing for transparency, accountability, and representation of the people's interests. This encourages political stability and fosters a sense of ownership and responsibility among citizens, as they have a stake in shaping the policies and direction of their government.

·         Moreover, power sharing facilitates the protection of minority rights, as it prevents the dominance of any single group over others. By ensuring equal representation and participation, power sharing safeguards against the marginalization or oppression of minority communities, thereby promoting social cohesion and harmony.

·         Overall, power sharing is not merely a pragmatic solution to prevent conflicts; it is a fundamental aspect of inclusive governance that upholds democratic values and ensures the equitable distribution of resources and opportunities among all members of society. Hence, it is widely regarded as the most desirable form of government for fostering stability, inclusivity, and social progress.

6. Forms of Power Sharing

a)    Horizontal Distribution: Horizontal distribution of power occurs when authority is divided among various branches of government, each with its own distinct roles and responsibilities. This separation of powers ensures a system of checks and balances, preventing any single branch from exerting excessive control. For instance, in many democratic nations like the United States, power is divided horizontally among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. This setup enables each branch to act as a check on the others, promoting accountability and safeguarding against abuse of power.

b)    Vertical Distribution: Vertical distribution of power, also known as federalism, involves the sharing of authority between different levels of government within a single political entity. In federal systems, such as that of the United States, power is divided between the national government and subnational entities, such as states or provinces. Each level of government possesses certain exclusive powers while also sharing some powers with the other levels. This division of authority helps accommodate regional differences and allows for tailored governance at different levels to address local needs and preferences.

c)    Social and Linguistic Groups: Beyond formal government structures, power sharing can also take place among various social and linguistic groups within a society. For instance, in countries like Belgium, where multiple linguistic communities coexist, power sharing is facilitated through mechanisms such as community governments. These bodies ensure that different linguistic groups have a say in local governance and decision-making processes, thereby promoting inclusivity and accommodating diverse identities within the broader political framework.

Political Parties, Pressure Groups, and Movements: Additionally, power sharing is evident within political parties, pressure groups, and social movements where individuals come together to influence decision-making processes and shape public policies. Within political parties, power is shared among party leaders, members, and supporters who contribute to the formulation of party platforms and strategies. Similarly, pressure groups and movements represent specific interests or causes and seek to exert influence on policymakers through advocacy, lobbying, and mobilization of public opinion. This form of power sharing allows for broader participation in the democratic process and ensures that diverse voices are heard in shaping public policies and governance.