Class 9 (Economics) Chapter 3 (Poverty as a challenge)

 

Class 9 (Economics)

Chapter 3 (Poverty as a challenge)

 

Notes

1. Overview of Poverty in India:

• India faces significant poverty issues, with approximately 70% of its population considered poor as of 2011-2012.
• Poverty is characterized by hunger, lack of shelter, inadequate education for children, malnutrition, and limited access to clean water and sanitation.

2. Causes of Poverty:

• Poverty can arise from various factors such as landlessness, illiteracy, unemployment, poor health, malnutrition, child labor, and large family sizes.

3.  Urban Poverty Case:

• Example: Ramsaran, a daily wage laborer in Ranchi, struggles to support his family of six with his earnings, supplemented by his wife's part-time income and his son's earnings from a tea shop.
• Despite multiple sources of income, the family faces challenges accessing education and healthcare due to financial constraints.

4.  Rural Poverty Case:

• Example: Lakha Singh, a landless laborer in a village near Meerut, and his family earn minimal wages working for landowners.
• Despite their hard work, the family struggles to afford two meals a day, often receiving compensation in kind rather than cash.

5.  Metrics for Measuring Poverty:

• Social Exclusion: Poverty often entails living among other impoverished individuals in marginalized communities, leading to limited opportunities and social inequality.
• Vulnerability: Certain groups, such as widows, handicapped individuals, and marginalized communities, are more susceptible to remaining in poverty, especially during natural disasters.
• Other contributing factors include illiteracy, malnutrition, limited access to healthcare, inadequate job opportunities, and lack of basic amenities.

6.  Poverty Line:

• The poverty line is determined based on consumption and income levels, varying across countries and adjusted over time.
• Criteria include food/calorie requirements, fuel, education, etc., with rural areas typically requiring 2400 calories and urban areas 2100 calories.
• According to the National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO), individuals with family incomes below INR 4080 in rural areas and INR 5000 in urban areas are considered below the poverty line.

7. Regional Disparities:

• Certain marginalized groups, such as Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, are disproportionately affected by poverty.
• Poverty rates vary among states, with Bihar and Orissa having the highest poverty rates and states like Maharashtra, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and West Bengal witnessing declines.

8.  Historical Context and Causes:

• Historical factors, including colonial policies that hindered industrial development and population control efforts, contributed to India's poverty.
• Economic growth is crucial for poverty reduction, providing resources for human capital investment and education, particularly for girls.

9.   Anti-Poverty Measures:

• The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) provides rural households with 100 days of employment, benefiting millions of households and increasing daily wages.
• Government schemes like Prime Minister Rozgar Yojana (PMRY), Rural Employment Generation Programme, and Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) aim to promote self-employment and lift people out of poverty through credit facilities and support from central banks and self-help groups.

Important Question Answers

Very Short Answer Questions

1.    What is the average daily calorie requirement per person in rural areas of India?

Answer: The average daily calorie requirement per person in rural areas of India is 2400.

2.    When was the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) enacted?

 Answer: The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) was enacted in September 2005.

3.    In which part of the world has poverty remained constant from 1981 to 2001?

 Answer: Poverty has remained constant from 1981 to 2001 in Latin America and the Caribbean Nations.

4.    Who are the target groups for the REGP and AAY anti-poverty programs?

Answer: The target group for the Rural Employment Generation Programme (REGP) is unemployed rural youth, and for the Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY), it is rural and urban poor families.

5.    Who are the target populations for the SGSY and NREGA programs?

Answer: The target population for the Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) is rural poor households, and for the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA), it is rural households.

6.    Is India recognized for having the largest concentration of poor people globally?

 Answer: Yes, India is estimated to have approximately 260 million people living in poverty as of 1999-2000.

7.    What does "vulnerability to poverty" signify?

Answer: "Vulnerability to poverty" refers to the likelihood of certain communities or individuals becoming or remaining poor in the future.

8.    Which agency conducts periodic sample surveys to estimate the poverty line in India?

Answer: The National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) conducts these surveys.

9.    What was the major anti-poverty program launched in 2000?

 Answer: The Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY) was launched in 2000.

10. In which year was the National Food for Work Programme (NFWP) initiated?

Answer: The National Food for Work Programme (NFWP) was initiated in 2004.

11. What method is used to calculate the poverty line in India?

Answer: The daily income and consumption method are used to estimate the poverty line in India.

12. Is it accurate that Kerala reduced poverty through the distribution of highly subsidized food grains?

Answer: No, Kerala focused on human resource development as a means to reduce poverty.

 

Short Answer Type Questions

1. How does population growth contribute significantly to poverty?

Answer: The rapid growth of population intensifies the depletion rate of resources, leading to increased pressure on available resources. Consequently, a larger populace competes for a limited share of resources, thereby pushing more individuals below the poverty threshold.

2. What accounts for the higher calorie requirements in rural areas compared to urban regions?

 Answer: The elevated calorie needs in rural areas stem from the predominantly physical labor-intensive occupations prevalent in rural settings, in contrast to the less physically demanding work commonly found in urban environments.

3. What are the primary factors contributing to the inefficacy of anti-poverty initiatives in India?

Answer: The principal factors behind the inefficacy of anti-poverty measures in India include inadequate program implementation, overlapping schemes, and the failure to accurately target beneficiaries.

4. Who constitutes the impoverished demographic in India?

Answer: The impoverished demographic in India comprises individuals such as landless laborers in rural areas, inhabitants of overcrowded urban slums, daily wage earners at construction sites, child laborers in roadside eateries, and destitute beggars with scanty clothing.

5. Define the concept of "social exclusion."

Answer: Social exclusion characterizes poverty as not merely an economic plight but also a social phenomenon, whereby individuals or communities are relegated to impoverished environments, excluded from social integration with more affluent counterparts.

6. How does a nation determine its poverty threshold?

Answer: Each country establishes its poverty threshold based on its developmental stage and prevailing social norms. For instance, in the United States, lacking car ownership might denote poverty, whereas in India, car ownership remains a luxury status symbol.

7. How have China and South Eastern Asian countries managed to mitigate poverty?

 Answer: China and South Eastern Asian countries have successfully alleviated poverty through rapid economic growth coupled with substantial investments in human capital development.

8. What historical factors underpin poverty in India?

Answer: Poverty in India is rooted in the low level of economic development fostered during British colonial rule, characterized by policies detrimental to traditional industries and job creation, coupled with a burgeoning population growth.

9. What was the objective of the National Food for Work Programme (NFWP)?

Answer: Launched in 2004 across 150 underprivileged districts, the NFWP aimed to provide wage employment opportunities to impoverished rural residents through manual unskilled work, supported by the provision of free food grains.

10. What does PMRY stand for, and what was its purpose?

Answer: PMRY stands for Prime Minister Rozgar Yojana, inaugurated in 1993 to foster self-employment opportunities for educated unemployed youth in rural and small-town settings.

11. What were the objectives of the Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)?

 Answer: Launched in 1999, SGSY aimed to elevate assisted impoverished families above the poverty line by organizing them into self-help groups, facilitating access to bank credit and government subsidies.

12. What was the essence of the Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY)?

Answer: Introduced in 2000, PMGY aimed to bolster basic services such as primary health, education, rural shelter, drinking water, and electrification through additional central assistance to states.

13. How do income disparities manifest within families?

Answer: Income disparities within families result in unequal suffering, particularly impacting women, children, and the elderly, who are systematically denied equitable access to family resources, rendering them the most impoverished within familial units.

14. Which states have experienced notable reductions in poverty?

 Answer: Kerala, Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and West Bengal have achieved significant declines in poverty rates, attributed to various factors such as human resource development, land reforms, and public distribution of food grains.

15. How can poverty reduction be enhanced in the future?

Answer: Poverty reduction can be bolstered through robust economic growth, universal access to education, particularly for marginalized communities, and empowering women and economically disadvantaged sections of society.

16. What are the key provisions of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005?

Answer: MGNREGA mandates 100 days of assured employment annually for rural households in designated districts, with provisions for women's reservation and an unemployment allowance if employment is not provided within 15 days.

17. List five indicators of poverty.

Answer: Landlessness, unemployment, illiteracy, child labor, and malnutrition are prominent indicators of poverty, highlighting socioeconomic vulnerabilities and deprivation.

 

Long Answer Type questions

1.    What is the poverty status among scheduled caste or scheduled tribe populations?

 Answer: Approximately 50% of casual workers in urban areas fall below the poverty line. Similarly, about 50% of landless agricultural workers and 43% of scheduled caste individuals are considered poor. The dual disadvantage faced by landless casual wage labor households within socially disadvantaged groups like the scheduled caste or scheduled tribe underscores the severity of this issue.

Recent studies indicate that, except for scheduled tribe households, the other three groups – scheduled caste, rural agricultural labor, and urban casual labor – have experienced a decline in poverty.

2.    What is the global poverty scenario?

Answer: Although global poverty has substantially decreased, it varies significantly across regions. (i) Poverty has notably decreased in China and Southeast Asian nations due to rapid economic growth and significant investments in human resource development. (ii) In South Asian countries, the reduction in poverty has been less rapid. Despite a decline in the percentage of poor, the absolute number of impoverished individuals decreased from 475 million in 1981 to 428 million in 2001. (iii) Sub-Saharan Africa witnessed an increase in poverty from 41% in 1981 to 46% in 2001. (iv) Latin America's poverty ratio remained unchanged. (v) Poverty has reemerged in some former socialist countries like Russia.

3.    What are the main causes of poverty?

Answer: The main causes of widespread poverty include: (i) Low economic development during British colonial rule, which undermined traditional handicrafts and discouraged industrial growth. (ii) High population growth rates, leading to low per capita income growth. (iii) Limited spread of benefits from irrigation and the Green Revolution, mainly benefiting specific regions. (iv) The proliferation of informal sector jobs, such as rickshaw pulling and domestic work, offering irregular and low incomes, particularly in urban areas.

4.    State the various Poverty Alleviation Programs introduced by the government to remove poverty.

Answer: Various Poverty Alleviation Programs introduced by the government include:

(i) Prime Minister Rozgar Yojana (PMRY): Facilitates self-employment opportunities for unemployed youth in rural areas and small towns.

(ii) Rural Employment Generation Programme (REGP): Creates self-employment opportunities in rural areas and small towns.

(iii) Swamajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY): Aims to lift assisted poor families above the poverty line by organizing them into self-help groups.

 (iv) Pradhan Mantri Gramodaya Yojana (PMGY): Provides additional central assistance to states for basic services like primary health and education, rural shelter, drinking water, and electrification.

5.    Which groups are most vulnerable to poverty?

Answer: Vulnerable social groups include Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, while economically, rural agricultural labor households and urban casual laborers face heightened vulnerability. About 51 out of 100 people from Scheduled Tribes and 50% of urban casual workers fall below the poverty line.

6.    Explain colonial rule and income inequalities as causes of poverty.

Answer: Colonial rule significantly hindered economic development, eroding traditional industries and discouraging new ones. Income inequalities, exacerbated by limited land availability for rural laborers, forced them into low-wage jobs, perpetuating poverty.

7.    State the most responsible factor for the significant decline in poverty in the States of Kerala, West Bengal, and Tamil Nadu.

Answer: Haryana, Kerala, and West Bengal achieved poverty reduction through: (i) Haryana: High agricultural growth rates facilitated by the Green Revolution. (ii) Kerala: Investment in human resource development, resulting in high literacy rates. (iii) West Bengal: Land reform measures aimed at reducing poverty.

8.    Describe one factor each for the success of Haryana, Kerala, and West Bengal in reducing poverty.

Answer: Poverty reduction in these states can be attributed to factors such as: (i) Haryana's agricultural growth rates, driven by the Green Revolution. (ii) Kerala's emphasis on human resource development, reflected in high literacy rates. (iii) West Bengal's implementation of land reforms to address poverty.

9.    How far is it correct to say that social exclusion can be both a cause as well as a consequence of poverty? Explain.

Answer: Social exclusion, besides its direct impact on income, can lead to additional hardships, making poverty more challenging to escape. For instance, caste-based discrimination in India deprives certain groups of opportunities, exacerbating their poverty. Conversely, poverty often leads to exclusion from essential services and opportunities, perpetuating the cycle of deprivation.

10. Explain any four important causes of poverty in India.

Answer: Key causes of poverty in India include: (i) Slow economic growth and inadequate job creation, particularly in the industrial sector. (ii) Urban migration, leading to a surplus workforce and increased urban poverty. (iii) Unequal distribution of land, contributing to rural poverty. (iv) Persistent informal sector employment, offering irregular incomes and limited social protections.

11. Describe the global poverty scenario as studied by the World Bank.

Answer: The World Bank's analysis emphasizes the role of economic growth in poverty reduction. India experienced rapid economic growth in the 1980s, leading to a decline in poverty rates. This growth created opportunities for investment in human development, such as education, which further contributed to poverty alleviation efforts.

12. How can poverty be reduced in the future in India? Suggest any four points.

Answer: To combat poverty effectively, India can focus on: (i) Accelerating economic growth through targeted policies and investments. (ii) Expanding access to quality education and healthcare to empower marginalized communities. (iii) Implementing land reforms to ensure equitable distribution and access to resources. (iv) Strengthening social safety nets and employment generation programs to provide support to vulnerable populations.

Class 9 (Economics) Chapter 2 (People as Resource)

 

Class 9 (Economics)

Chapter 2 (People as Resource)

Notes

 

1. Introduction

The population of a nation has the potential to serve as an asset rather than a burden.

The concept of "People as resource" pertains to a nation's workforce in terms of their existing productive skills and abilities.

 When the existing human resources are enhanced through education and healthcare, they transform into human capital.

 Human capital holds a superior position compared to other resources such as land and physical capital, as it utilizes and enhances the value of these resources.

 Investments in human capital, particularly through education and healthcare, can yield significant returns in the future. Countries like Japan have heavily invested in their human resources, allowing them to develop despite limited natural resources.

 Human beings engage in various activities, which can be categorized into economic and non-economic endeavors.

  2. Economic Activities:

 Economic activities encompass those work undertaken by individuals for financial gain or to fulfill their needs and desires. These activities span a wide range of occupations, including those of workers, farmers, shopkeepers, manufacturers, doctors, lawyers, taxi drivers, and more. They are also commonly referred to as market activities.

 

3. Non-Economic Activities:

 

Non-economic activities, on the other hand, are those not pursued for monetary profit. They are often referred to as unpaid activities and include practices such as religious rituals, household chores, charitable acts like aiding the needy or disabled, and similar endeavors.

 

 4. Economic Activities Classification:

Economic activities are typically divided into three sectors: the primary sector, the secondary sector, and the tertiary sector.

 In the primary sector, activities such as agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, fishing, poultry farming, and mining take place. This sector involves the extraction or cultivation of raw materials from natural resources.

 

The secondary sector encompasses manufacturing, including both small-scale and large-scale production, as well as construction activities.

 

The tertiary sector, also known as the service sector, comprises a wide range of services such as transportation, education, banking, insurance, healthcare, tourism, and more.

 

5. Quality of Population:

 

The quality of a population is determined by factors such as literacy rate, life expectancy, and the acquisition of skills by individuals within the country.

 

Education's Role:

 

Education plays a pivotal role in human resource development, contributing significantly to societal growth, enhancing national income, enriching cultural diversity, and improving governance efficiency.

 

Government spending on education as a percentage of GDP has increased over the years, from 0.64% in 1951-52 to 3.98% in 2002-03, with the national goal set at 6% of GDP.

 

Disparities exist in literacy rates between genders and across urban and rural areas, with urban populations typically exhibiting higher literacy rates.

 

Initiatives like the "Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan" aim to provide elementary education to all children below the age of 14.

 

Health:

 

Health is another crucial aspect of human resource development, as the efficiency of workers is greatly influenced by their health status.

 

While there has been notable improvement in the country's health standards, challenges remain, such as addressing infant mortality rates and further enhancing the healthcare infrastructure.

  

6. Unemployment:

 

Unemployment occurs when individuals willing to work at prevailing wage rates are unable to secure employment.

Typically, unemployed individuals are those within the age bracket of 15 to 59 years.

Children below the age of 15 and elderly individuals above 60 are not considered when calculating unemployment rates.

 

Nature of Unemployment in India:

 

Seasonal unemployment arises when individuals are unable to find work during certain months of the year, particularly during off-season periods. This type of unemployment is commonly experienced by agricultural labourers.

 

Disguised unemployment is prevalent in rural areas and is attributed to the overpopulation of the agricultural sector. It occurs when there are more workers engaged in a job than necessary, resulting in surplus labor that is essentially disguisedly unemployed.

 

Consequences of Unemployment:

 

(i) Unemployment results in the inefficient utilization of manpower resources.

(ii) It contributes to an economic burden, with unemployed individuals becoming increasingly dependent on the working population.

(iii) Unemployment can lead to heightened social unrest and tension within society.

 

Important Question answers

 

Question 1: What is meant by 'people as a resource'?

Answer: 'People as a resource' refers to the country's working population in terms of their existing productive skills and abilities.

Question 2: How does human resource differ from other resources like land and physical capital?

Answer: Human resource utilizes other resources like land and physical capital to generate output. Unlike land and physical capital, human resource cannot become productive on its own, making it superior to other resources.

Question 3: What role does education play in human capital formation?

Answer: Education is crucial for human capital formation as it provides individuals with the necessary skills and knowledge to contribute to economic productivity. It enhances individual productivity, contributes to economic growth, and fosters national consciousness.

Question 4: How does health contribute to human capital formation?

Answer: Health plays a vital role in human capital formation by enabling individuals to realize their full potential and productivity. A healthy workforce is essential for economic development, as it leads to higher efficiency and productivity.

Question 5: What impact does health have on an individual's working life?

Answer: Health significantly affects an individual's working life as it directly influences their productivity and efficiency. Healthy individuals are better equipped to perform their job responsibilities compared to unhealthy individuals, resulting in higher output and performance.

Question 6: What are the various activities undertaken in the primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors?

Answer: The primary sector includes activities such as agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, fishing, poultry farming, and mining. The secondary sector comprises manufacturing and construction activities. The tertiary sector encompasses services like trade, transport, education, banking, healthcare, tourism, and more.

Question 7: What distinguishes economic activities from non-economic activities?

Answer: Economic activities are undertaken for monetary gain or to satisfy wants, while non-economic activities are not pursued for monetary benefit. Economic activities contribute to national income, whereas non-economic activities are often unpaid and performed for personal fulfillment or societal welfare.

Question 8: Why are women often employed in low-paying jobs?

Answer: Women are often employed in low-paying jobs due to gender discrimination, limited access to education and skill development, and societal norms that undervalue their contributions. This results in a lack of opportunities for women to secure higher-paying employment.

Question 9: How would you define unemployment?

Answer: Unemployment refers to a situation where individuals willing and able to work at prevailing wage rates are unable to find employment opportunities. It indicates an underutilization of labor resources within an economy.

Question 10: What distinguishes disguised unemployment from seasonal unemployment?

Answer: Disguised unemployment occurs when more workers are engaged in a job than necessary, leading to inefficiency without affecting total production. Seasonal unemployment arises when individuals can only find employment during certain months of the year due to the seasonal nature of certain industries.

Question 11: Why is educated unemployment a unique challenge in India?

Answer: Educated unemployment is a significant challenge in India due to the rapid growth of the educated workforce, coupled with insufficient job creation in various sectors. The gap between the skills possessed by educated individuals and the skills demanded by the job market exacerbates the issue.

Question 12: In which sector can India create the most employment opportunities?

Answer: India can generate significant employment opportunities in the agricultural sector and its allied industries. Agriculture is labor-intensive, and improvements in agricultural practices, along with value addition and modernization, can create numerous job opportunities.

Question 13: How can the education system mitigate the issue of educated unemployment?

Answer: The education system can address educated unemployment by focusing on skill development, vocational training, and aligning curricula with industry requirements. Emphasizing practical skills and fostering entrepreneurship can empower individuals to create their employment opportunities.

Question 14: Among land, labor, physical capital, and human capital, which is the most valuable resource?

Answer: Human capital is considered the most valuable resource among land, labor, physical capital, and human capital. Unlike other resources, human capital has the ability to utilize and enhance the productivity of land, labor, and physical capital, making it indispensable for economic growth

Question 15: Enumerate the drawbacks of population growth.

Answer:

1. Population increase entails several drawbacks, including:
2. A decline in per capita income.
3. A rise in non-productive forces within the economy.
4. An increase in the number of people below the poverty line.
5. The proliferation of slums in urban areas.
6. A surge in unemployment rates.

Question 16: Highlight the significance of education.

Answer: The significance of education encompasses:

1. Enabling individuals to realize their potential and capabilities for work.
2. Cultivating new aspirations and instilling values essential for personal development and societal growth.
3. Enhancing national income, fostering cultural richness, and bolstering the efficiency of governance.

Question 17: List the disadvantages of unemployment.

Answer: Disadvantages of unemployment include:

1. Squandering of human resources, converting potential contributors to the economy into liabilities.
2. Unemployment fosters a frustrated class within society, leading to feelings of helplessness and despair, thereby contributing to social unrest and tension.
3. Unemployment exacerbates the economic burden by increasing dependence on the working population.

Question 18: Propose three methods to harness population as an asset.

Answer: Three strategies to transform population into an asset entail:

1. Improving literacy rates through education, fostering new aspirations, and enriching cultural values, consequently enhancing national income and governance efficiency.
2. Prioritizing health by enabling individuals to realize their potential, bolstering disease resistance, and promoting self-confidence through improved longevity and healthcare access.
3. Developing skills through vocational and skill-based education, empowering individuals to secure employment and contribute to national income.

Question 19: Detail the initiatives undertaken by the government to enhance literacy conditions in India.

Answer: Government initiatives to improve literacy conditions include:

1. Establishment of Navodaya Vidyalayas in each district, offering vocational streams to equip high school students with practical knowledge and skills.
2. Implementation of Sarva Siksha Abhiyan, aimed at providing elementary education to children aged 6-14 through a collaborative effort between the Central Government, States, local governments, and communities.
3. Introduction of the Mid-day Meal Scheme to enhance school attendance, retention, and nutritional status among children.

Question 20: Explain how Japan emerged as a developed country despite its limited natural resources.

Answer: Japan's development as a developed country stemmed from:

1. Investment in human resources due to limited natural resources, focusing on education and healthcare.
2. Importing necessary natural resources while leveraging the efficiency and technology developed by its educated workforce to make efficient use of land and capital.
3. Prioritizing human capital development, which proved instrumental in Japan's economic growth and technological advancement.

Question 21: Elucidate how investment in human capital yields returns akin to investment in physical capital.

Answer: Investment in human capital, encompassing education, training, and medical care, yields returns by:

1. Increasing individual productivity and incomes through enhanced skills and health, akin to the productivity gains from physical capital investment.
2. Indirectly benefiting society through the spillover effects of a healthier and more educated population, ultimately contributing to economic growth and development.

Question 22: Propose various strategies for the government to alleviate unemployment in India.

Answer: Strategies to combat unemployment in India involve:

1. Increasing investment in basic and consumer goods industries to create more employment opportunities.
2. Promoting the development of cottage and small-scale industries employing labor-intensive techniques.
3. Reforming the educational system to emphasize vocational education and aligning curricula with industry demands.
4. Implementing population control measures through family planning and welfare schemes.
5. Modernizing agriculture and utilizing wastelands to create agricultural employment.
6. Expanding rural works programs to provide employment opportunities in rural areas.
7. Enhancing the infrastructure to stimulate economic growth and job creation.
8. Providing subsidies and incentives to the private sector to boost employment generation.
9. Encouraging self-employment among young entrepreneurs through training and financial assistance.

Question 23: Describe the different types of unemployment prevalent in India.

Answer: Types of unemployment in India include:

1. Disguised unemployment, where individuals appear employed but contribute minimally to productive activities, commonly found in agriculture among family members.
2. Seasonal unemployment, occurring when individuals cannot find jobs during certain months, particularly prevalent in agriculture during off-seasons.
3. Educated unemployment, a phenomenon observed in urban areas, where individuals with higher education degrees struggle to secure suitable employment, leading to underutilization of educated workforce resources.